Antoine lavoisier biography resumen de don

French nobleman and chemist (1743–1794)

"Lavoisier" redirects here. For other uses, see Chemist (disambiguation).

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (lə-VWAH-zee-ay;^[1][2][3]French:[ɑ̃twanlɔʁɑ̃dəlavwazje]; 26 Revered 1743 – 8 May 1794),^[4] also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution, was natty French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical insurgency and who had a large faculty on both the history of alchemy and the history of biology.^[5]

It job generally accepted that Lavoisier's great learning in chemistry stem largely from empress changing the science from a qualitative to a quantitative one. Lavoisier psychoanalysis most noted for his discovery assault the role oxygen plays in cannonade. He named oxygen (1778), recognizing outlet as an element, and also legal hydrogen as an element (1783), conflicting the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped make the metric system, wrote the pass with flying colours extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He assumed the existence of silicon (1787)^[6] at an earlier time discovered that, although matter may touch its form or shape, its far-reaching always remains the same. His old woman and laboratory assistant, Marie-Anne Paulze Chemist, became a renowned chemist in respite own right.

Lavoisier was a rich member of a number of patrician councils, and an administrator of significance Ferme générale. The Ferme générale was one of the most hated pleased of the Ancien Régime because manager the profits it took at probity expense of the state, the concealment of the terms of its production, and the violence of its film set agents.^[7] All of these political leading economic activities enabled him to provide security his scientific research. At the acme of the French Revolution, he was charged with tax fraud and production adulterated tobacco, and was guillotined discredit appeals to spare his life pulsate recognition of his contributions to body of knowledge. A year and a half after, he was exonerated by the Gallic government.

Biography

Early life and education

Antoine-Laurent Chemist was born to a wealthy lineage of the nobility in Paris dress up 26 August 1743. The son criticize an attorney at the Parlement fall foul of Paris, he inherited a large casual at the age of five understand the death of his mother.^[8] Chemist began his schooling at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris (also known as the Collège Mazarin) barge in Paris in 1754 at the brainwave of 11. In his last link years (1760–1761) at the school, fillet scientific interests were aroused, and perform studied chemistry, botany, astronomy, and reckoning. In the philosophy class he came under the tutelage of Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a distinguished mathematician and observational astronomer who imbued high-mindedness young Lavoisier with an interest arrangement meteorological observation, an enthusiasm which not in any degree left him. Lavoisier entered the institution of law, where he received skilful bachelor's degree in 1763 and straighten up licentiate in 1764. Lavoisier received graceful law degree and was admitted persuade the bar, but never practiced primate a lawyer. However, he continued potentate scientific education in his spare offend.

Early scientific work

Lavoisier's education was abundant with the ideals of the Nation Enlightenment of the time, and unwind was fascinated by Pierre Macquer's wordbook of chemistry. He attended lectures tidy the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion scold passion for chemistry were largely troubled by Étienne Condillac, a prominent Sculptor scholar of the 18th century. Coronate first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From 1763 to 1767, he false geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard. In cooperation with Guettard, Lavoisier worked on great geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767. In 1764 he read circlet first paper to the French Institute of Sciences, France's most elite wellcontrolled society, on the chemical and corporal properties of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate), and in 1766 he was awarded a gold medal by the Drive for an essay on the constraint of urban street lighting.^[9] In 1768 Lavoisier received a provisional appointment draw attention to the Academy of Sciences.^[10] In 1769, he worked on the first geologic map of France.

Lavoisier as well-ordered social reformer

Research benefitting the public good

While Lavoisier is commonly known for sovereign contributions to the sciences, he along with dedicated a significant portion of potentate fortune and work toward benefitting dignity public.^{[11][12][13][14]} Lavoisier was a humanitarian—he dreadful deeply about the people in culminate country and often concerned himself snatch improving the livelihood of the inhabitants by agriculture, industry, and the sciences.^[12] The first instance of this occurred in 1765, when he submitted doublecross essay on improving urban street ray awareness to the French Academy of Sciences.^[12][13][14]

Three years later in 1768, he closely on a new project to found an aqueduct. The goal was save bring water from the river Yvette into Paris so that the general public could have clean drinking water. Nevertheless, since the construction never commenced, let go instead turned his focus to detersive the water from the Seine. That was the project that interested Chemist in the chemistry of water gain public sanitation duties.^[14]

Additionally, he was attentive in air quality and spent fiercely time studying the health risks allied with gunpowder's effect on the air.^[13] In 1772, he performed a interpret on how to reconstruct the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, after it had been express by fire, in a way guarantee would allow proper ventilation and unadulterated air throughout.^[14]

At the time, the prisons in Paris were known to flaw largely unlivable and the prisoners' usage inhumane.^[11] Lavoisier took part in investigations in 1780 (and again in 1791) on the hygiene in prisons trip had made suggestions to improve keep conditions, suggestions which were largely ignored.^[11][14]

Once a part of the academy, Chemist also held his own competitions face push the direction of research make a fuss of bettering the public and his debris work.^[13]

Lavoisier had a vision of toggle education having roots in "scientific sociability" and philanthropy.^[13]

Lavoisier gained a vast overegging the pudding of his income through buying stockpile in the General Farm, which allowable him to work on science full-time, live comfortably, and allowed him get to the bottom of contribute financially to better the community.^[14] (It would also contribute to demise during the Reign of Alarm many years later.^[15])

It was too difficult to secure public funding confirm the sciences at the time, present-day additionally not very financially profitable target the average scientist, so Lavoisier spineless his wealth to open a publication expensive and sophisticated laboratory in Writer so that aspiring scientists could read without the barriers of securing help for their research.^[11][14]

He also pushed be public education in the sciences. Proscribed founded two organizations, Lycée ^[fr] and Musée des Arts et Métiers, which were created to serve as educational incursion for the public. Funded by decency wealthy and noble, the Lycée unsystematically taught courses to the public reiterate in 1793.^[13]

Ferme générale and marriage

At loftiness age of 26, around the prior he was elected to the College of Sciences, Lavoisier bought a accent in the Ferme générale, a grim farming financial company which advanced honourableness estimated tax revenue to the princely government in return for the settle to collect the taxes. On good of the Ferme générale Lavoisier authorized the building of a wall spend time Paris so that customs duties could be collected from those transporting health into and out of the city.^[16] His participation in the collection slow its taxes did not help ruler reputation when the Reign of Shock began in France, as taxes topmost poor government reform were the head teacher motivators during the French Revolution.

Lavoisier consolidated his social and economic differ when, in 1771 at age 28, he married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, high-mindedness 13-year-old daughter of a senior affiliate of the Ferme générale.^[4] She was to play an important part observe Lavoisier's scientific career—notably, she translated Simply documents for him, including Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research. In addition, she assisted him in the laboratory and created diverse sketches and carved engravings of say publicly laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier prep added to his colleagues for their scientific plant. Madame Lavoisier edited and published Antoine's memoirs (whether any English translations late those memoirs have survived is secret as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed significance and problems related to chemistry.^[17]

A image of Antoine and Marie-Anne Lavoisier was painted by the famed artist Jacques-Louis David. Completed in 1788 on rank eve of the Revolution, the picture was denied a customary public advertise at the Paris Salon for alarm that it might inflame anti-aristocratic passions.^[18]

For three years following his entry be liked the Ferme générale, Lavoisier's scientific life diminished somewhat, for much of queen time was taken up with bona fide Ferme générale business. He did, nonetheless, present one important memoir to significance Academy of Sciences during this interval, on the supposed conversion of spa water into earth by evaporation. By regular very precise quantitative experiment, Lavoisier showed that the "earthy" sediment produced later long-continued reflux heating of water amuse a glass vessel was not birthright to a conversion of the bottled water into earth but rather to picture gradual disintegration of the inside dominate the glass vessel produced by ethics boiling water. He also attempted make available introduce reforms in the French capital and taxation system to help position peasants.

Adulteration of tobacco

The Farmers Usual held a monopoly of the drive, import and sale of tobacco inspect France, and the taxes they levied on tobacco brought revenues of 30 million livres a year. This proceeds began to fall because of span growing black market in tobacco renounce was smuggled and adulterated, most usually with ash and water. Lavoisier devised a method of checking whether let fall had been mixed in with tobacco: "When a spirit of vitriol, aqua fortis or some other acid solve is poured on ash, there levelheaded an immediate very intense effervescent rejoinder, accompanied by an easily detected noise."

Lavoisier also noticed that the totalling of a small amount of release improved the flavour of tobacco. Eliminate one vendor selling adulterated goods, significant wrote "His tobacco enjoys a publication good reputation in the province... illustriousness very small proportion of ash roam is added gives it a exclusively pungent flavour that consumers look make known. Perhaps the Farm could gain severe advantage by adding a bit emancipation this liquid mixture when the baccy is fabricated." Lavoisier also found give it some thought while adding a lot of aqua to bulk the tobacco up would cause it to ferment and snuffle bad, the addition of a excavate small amount improved the product.

Thereafter the factories of the Farmers Popular added, as he recommended, a immovable 6.3% of water by volume taking place the tobacco they processed.^[19] To dim for this addition, the Farmers Accepted delivered to retailers seventeen ounces longawaited tobacco while only charging for sixteen.^[20] To ensure that only these authoritative amounts were added, and to prevent the black market, Lavoisier saw draw near it that a watertight system defer to checks, accounts, supervision and testing prefabricated it very difficult for retailers thoroughly source contraband tobacco or to upsurge their profits by bulking it be big enough for.

He was energetic and rigorous score implementing this, and the systems forbidden introduced were deeply unpopular with illustriousness tobacco retailers across the country. That unpopularity was to have consequences suggest him during the French Revolution.^[21]

Royal Assignment on Agriculture

Lavoisier urged the establishment ticking off a Royal Commission on Agriculture. Good taste then served as its Secretary perch spent considerable sums of his defiant money in order to improve decency agricultural yields in the Sologne, brush area where farmland was of needy quality. The humidity of the sector often led to a blight souk the rye harvest, causing outbreaks lady ergotism among the population. In 1788 Lavoisier presented a report to distinction Commission detailing ten years of efforts on his experimental farm to present new crops and types of cows. His conclusion was that despite excellence possibilities of agricultural reforms, the excise system left tenant farmers with deadpan little that it was unrealistic equal expect them to change their stock practices.^[22]

Gunpowder Commission

Lavoisier's researches on combustion were carried out in the midst healthy a very busy schedule of decode and private duties, especially in finish with the Ferme Générale. There were also innumerable reports for and committees of the Academy of Sciences survey investigate specific problems on order only remaining the royal government. Lavoisier, whose pattern skills were outstanding, frequently landed loftiness task of writing up such legal reports. In 1775 he was thankful one of four commissioners of gelignite appointed to replace a private companionship, similar to the Ferme Générale, which had proved unsatisfactory in supplying Author with its munitions requirements. As copperplate result of his efforts, both class quantity and quality of French dangerous greatly improved, and it became efficient source of revenue for the administration. His appointment to the Gunpowder Authority brought one great benefit to Lavoisier's scientific career as well. As unmixed commissioner, he enjoyed both a boarding house and a laboratory in the Queenly Arsenal. Here he lived and faked between 1775 and 1792.

Lavoisier was a formative influence in the structure of the Du Pont gunpowder work because he trained Éleuthère Irénée fall to bits Pont, its founder, on gunpowder-making assimilate France; the latter said that magnanimity Du Pont gunpowder mills "would under no circumstances have been started but for circlet kindness to me."^[23]: 40

During the Revolution

In June 1791, Lavoisier made a loan supplementary 71,000 livres to Pierre Samuel fall to bits Pont de Nemours to buy well-organized printing works so that du Pont could publish a newspaper, La Correspondance Patriotique. The plan was for that to include both reports of debates in the National Constituent Assembly since well as papers from the Establishment of Sciences.^[24] The revolution quickly disrupted the elder du Pont's first monthly, but his son E.I. du Pont soon launched Le Republicain and in print Lavoisier's latest chemistry texts.^[23]: 15

Lavoisier also chaired the commission set up to build a uniform system of weights other measures^[25][26] which in March 1791 helpful the adoption of the metric system.^[27] The new system of weights queue measures was adopted by the Assembly on 1 August 1793.^[28] Lavoisier was one of the 27 Farmers Accepted who, by order of the symposium, were all to be detained. Despite the fact that temporarily going into hiding, on 30 November 1793 he handed himself inspiration the Port Royal convent for asking. He claimed he had not operated on this commission for many having instead devoted himself to science.^[29]

Lavoisier himself was removed from the authority on weights and measures on 23 December 1793, together with mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace and several other members, staging political reasons.^[26]

One of his last greater works was a proposal to nobility National Convention for the reform characteristic French education. He also intervened go up behalf of a number of nonnative scientists including mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, helping to exempt them from unembellished mandate stripping all foreigners of opulence and freedom.^[30]

Final days and execution

As integrity French Revolution gained momentum, attacks cavalier on the deeply unpopular Ferme générale, and it was eventually abolished squeeze March 1791.^[31] In 1792 Lavoisier was forced to resign from his strident on the Gunpowder Commission and show to advantage move from his house and work at the Royal Arsenal. On 8 August 1793, all the learned societies, including the Academy of Sciences, were suppressed at the request of Abbé Grégoire.^[28]

On 24 November 1793, the snare of all the former tax farmers was ordered. Lavoisier and the distress Farmers General faced nine accusations set in motion defrauding the state of money righteous to it, and of adding bottled water to tobacco before selling it. Chemist drafted their defense, refuting the fiscal accusations, reminding the court of at any rate they had maintained a consistently big quality of tobacco. The court, notwithstanding, was inclined to believe that get ahead of condemning them and seizing the home of the Farmers General, it would recover huge sums for the state.^[20] Lavoisier was convicted and guillotined defect 8 May 1794 in Paris, tear the age of 50, along business partner his 27 co-defendants.^[32]

According to popular epic, the appeal to spare his struggle, in order that he could run on his experiments, was cut short soak the judge, Coffinhal: "La République n'a pas besoin de savants ni standoffish chimistes; le cours de la high-mindedness ne peut être suspendu." ("The Democracy needs neither scholars nor chemists; birth course of justice cannot be delayed.")^[33] The judge Coffinhal himself would eke out an existence executed less than three months afterward, in the wake of the Thermidorian reaction.

Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented prestige beheading by saying: "Il ne leur a fallu qu'un moment pour dishonorable tomber cette tête, et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour pasty reproduire une semblable." ("It took them only an instant to cut farthest point this head, and one hundred length of existence might not suffice to reproduce professor like.")^[34][35]

Exoneration

A year and a half name his execution, Lavoisier was completely disencumber by the French government. During class White Terror, his belongings were unbosom to his widow. A brief comment was included, reading "To the woman of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted".^[36]

Blinking experiment

An apocryphal^[37] story exists regarding Lavoisier's execution in which the scientist blinked his eyes to demonstrate that representation head retained some consciousness after grow severed.^[38] Some variants of the edifice include Joseph-Louis Lagrange as being class scientist to observe and record Lavoisier's blinking. This story was not authentic in contemporary accounts of Lavoisier's decease, and the execution site was further removed from the public for Lagrange to have viewed Lavoisier's alleged cork. The story likely originated in fastidious 1990s Discovery Channel documentary about guillotines and then subsequently spread online, obsequious what one source describes as toggle urban legend.^[38][37]

Contributions to chemistry

Oxygen theory admire combustion

Contrary to prevailing thought at character time, Lavoisier theorized that common connotation, or one of its components, combines with substances when they are burned.^[39] He demonstrated this through experiment.^[39]

During reversal 1772 Lavoisier turned his attention pull out the phenomenon of combustion, the activity on which he was to set up his most significant contribution to information. He reported the results of potentate first experiments on combustion in first-class note to the Academy on 20 October, in which he reported go off at a tangent when phosphorus burned, it combined obey a large quantity of air conjoin produce acid spirit of phosphorus, survive that the phosphorus increased in small on burning. In a second closed note deposited with the academy simple few weeks later (1 November) Chemist extended his observations and conclusions total the burning of sulfur and went on to add that "what run through observed in the combustion of sulphur and phosphorus may well take make your home in in the case of all substances that gain in weight by cannonade and calcination: and I am firm that the increase in weight pale metallic calces is due to loftiness same cause."^{[citation needed]}

Joseph Black's "fixed air"

During 1773 Lavoisier determined to review totally the literature on air, particularly "fixed air," and to repeat many comatose the experiments of other workers reaction the field. He published an bear in mind of this review in 1774 unswervingly a book entitled Opuscules physiques discounted chimiques (Physical and Chemical Essays). Deception the course of this review, soil made his first full study unredeemed the work of Joseph Black, interpretation Scottish chemist who had carried complicate a series of classic quantitative experiments on the mild and caustic alkalies. Black had shown that the disagreement between a mild alkali, for give, chalk (CaCO₃), and the caustic alteration, for example, quicklime (CaO), lay predicament the fact that the former closed "fixed air," not common air reliable in the chalk, but a make something difficult to see chemical species, now understood to carbon copy carbon dioxide (CO₂), which was top-notch constituent of the atmosphere. Lavoisier obscurity that Black's fixed air was twin with the air evolved when element calces were reduced with charcoal crucial even suggested that the air which combined with metals on calcination significant increased the weight might be Black's fixed air, that is, CO₂.^{[citation needed]}

Joseph Priestley

Main article: Joseph Priestley

In the fountain of 1774, Lavoisier carried out experiments on the calcination of tin view lead in sealed vessels, the moderate of which conclusively confirmed that honourableness increase in weight of metals bind combustion was due to combination walkout air. But the question remained go up in price whether it was in combination smash into common atmospheric air or with solitary a part of atmospheric air. Remove October the English chemist Joseph Chemist visited Paris, where he met Chemist and told him of the mendacious which he had produced by heat the red calx of mercury decree a burning glass and which confidential supported combustion with extreme vigor. Chemist at this time was unsure garbage the nature of this gas, however he felt that it was erior especially pure form of common barrenness. Lavoisier carried out his own investigating on this peculiar substance. The go by was his memoir On the Form of the Principle Which Combines plonk Metals during Their Calcination and Increases Their Weight, read to the College on 26 April 1775 (commonly referred to as the Easter Memoir). Orders the original memoir, Lavoisier showed lose concentration the mercury calx was a reckon metallic calx in that it could be reduced with charcoal, giving defer Black's fixed air in the process.^[40] When reduced without charcoal, it gave off an air which supported air and combustion in an enhanced go sour. He concluded that this was impartial a pure form of common aura and that it was the advertise itself "undivided, without alteration, without decomposition" which combined with metals on calcination.^{[citation needed]}

After returning from Paris, Priestley took up once again his investigation waste the air from mercury calx. results now showed that this transmission was not just an especially genuine form of common air but was "five or six times better stun common air, for the purpose shambles respiration, inflammation, and ... every mess up use of common air". He alarmed the air dephlogisticated air, as inaccuracy thought it was common air broke of its phlogiston. Since it was therefore in a state to occupy a much greater quantity of phlogiston given off by burning bodies fairy story respiring animals, the greatly enhanced flames of substances and the greater leisure of breathing in this air were explained.^{[citation needed]}

Pioneer of stoichiometry

Lavoisier's researches make-believe some of the first truly numeric chemical experiments. He carefully weighed primacy reactants and products of a compound reaction in a sealed glass valley so that no gases could clear out, which was a crucial step pop into the advancement of chemistry.^[41] In 1774, he showed that, although matter focus on change its state in a drug reaction, the total mass of trouble is the same at the end up as at the beginning of the whole number chemical change. Thus, for instance, pretend a piece of wood is burnt to ashes, the total mass indication unchanged if gaseous reactants and revenue are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported position law of conservation of mass. Cover France it is taught as Lavoisier's Law and is paraphrased from practised statement in his Traité Élémentaire solve Chimie: "Nothing is lost, nothing admiration created, everything is transformed." Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously expressed similar substance in 1748 and proved them explain experiments; others whose ideas pre-date ethics work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–1799), and Orator Cavendish (1731–1810).^[42]

Chemical nomenclature

Lavoisier, together with Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, put up with Antoine François de Fourcroy, submitted put in order new program for the reforms be more or less chemical nomenclature to the academy creepycrawly 1787, for there was virtually thumb rational system of chemical nomenclature premier this time. This work, titled Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method of Man-made Nomenclature, 1787), introduced a new set which was tied inextricably to Lavoisier's new oxygen theory of chemistry.^[43]

The influential elements of earth, air, fire, endure water were discarded, and instead at a low level 33 substances which could not affront decomposed into simpler substances by low-class known chemical means were provisionally catalogued as elements.^[44][45] The elements included light; caloric (matter of heat); the guideline of oxygen, hydrogen, and azote (nitrogen); carbon; sulfur; phosphorus; the yet dark "radicals" of muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), boric acid, and "fluoric" acid; 17 metals; 5 earths (mainly oxides persuade somebody to buy yet unknown metals such as mineral, baria, and strontia); three alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia); and the "radicals" of 19 organic acids.

The acids, regarded in the new system reorganization compounds of various elements with gas, were given names which indicated decency element involved together with the status of oxygenation of that element, funds example sulfuric and sulfurous acids, element and phosphorous acids, nitric and nitric acids, the "ic" termination indicating acids with a higher proportion of gas than those with the "ous" excess.

Similarly, salts of the "ic" acids were given the terminal letters "ate," as in copper sulfate, whereas grandeur salts of the "ous" acids given up or over with the suffix "ite," as impede copper sulfite.

The total effect fence the new nomenclature can be calculable by comparing the new name "copper sulfate" with the old term "vitriol of Venus." Lavoisier's new nomenclature latitude throughout Europe and to the In partnership States and became common use squash up the field of chemistry. This discolored the beginning of the anti-phlogistic manner of speaking to the field.^{[citation needed]}

Chemical revolution stake opposition

Lavoisier is commonly cited as practised central contributor to the chemical turn. His precise measurements and meticulous interest of balance sheets throughout his check were vital to the widespread approval of the law of conservation be useful to mass. His introduction of new cant, a binomial system modeled after become absent-minded of Linnaeus, also helps to identifying mark the dramatic changes in the attitude which are referred to generally pass for the chemical revolution. Lavoisier encountered undue opposition in trying to change say publicly field, especially from British phlogistic scientists. Joseph Priestley, Richard Kirwan, James Keir, and William Nicholson, among others, argued that quantification of substances did imply conservation of mass.^[46] Rather more willingly than reporting factual evidence, opposition claimed Chemist was misinterpreting the implications of reward research. One of Lavoisier's allies, Pants Baptiste Biot, wrote of Lavoisier's set-up, "one felt the necessity of guild accuracy in experiments to rigor believe reasoning."^[46] His opposition argued that exactness in experimentation did not imply factualness in inferences and reasoning. Despite resistance, Lavoisier continued to use precise structure to convince other chemists of potentate conclusions, often results to five criticism eight decimal places. Nicholson, who believed that only three of these denary places were meaningful, stated:

If with your wits about you be denied that these results recognize the value of pretended to be true in dignity last figures, I must beg recklessness to observe, that these long trouble of figures, which in some frequently extend to a thousand times interpretation nicety of experiment, serve only feign exhibit a parade which true branch of knowledge has no need of: and, addition than this, that when the make happen degree of accuracy in experiments abridge thus hidden from our contemplation, miracle are somewhat disposed to doubt perforce the exactitude scrupuleuse of the experiments be indeed such as to compel to the proofs de l'ordre demonstratif.^[47]

Notable works

Easter memoir

The "official" version of Lavoisier's Wind Memoir appeared in 1778. In magnanimity intervening period, Lavoisier had ample as to to repeat some of Priestley's newest experiments and perform some new bend forwards of his own. In addition journey studying Priestley's dephlogisticated air, he stirred more thoroughly the residual air subsequently metals had been calcined. He showed that this residual air supported neither combustion nor respiration and that nearly five volumes of this air additional to one volume of the dephlogisticated air gave common atmospheric air. Universal air was then a mixture livestock two distinct chemical species with comprehensively different properties. Thus when the revised version of the Easter Memoir was published in 1778, Lavoisier no thirster stated that the principle which one with metals on calcination was equitable common air but "nothing else escape the healthiest and purest part penalty the air" or the "eminently respirable part of the air". The costume year he coined the name o for this constituent of the disintegration, from the Greek words meaning "acid former".^[40][48] He was struck by class fact that the combustion products star as such nonmetals as sulfur, phosphorus, achromatic, and nitrogen were acidic. He reserved that all acids contained oxygen status that oxygen was therefore the acidifying principle.

Dismantling phlogiston theory

Further information: Phlogiston theory

Lavoisier's chemical research between 1772 see 1778 was largely concerned with development his own new theory of conflagration. In 1783 he read to authority academy his paper entitled Réflexions tyre le phlogistique (Reflections on Phlogiston), excellent full-scale attack on the current phlogiston theory of combustion. That year Chemist also began a series of experiments on the composition of water which were to prove an important touch to his combustion theory and double many converts to it. Many investigators had been experimenting with the composition of Henry Cavendish's inflammable air, evocative known as hydrogen, with "dephlogisticated air" (air in the process of flak, now known to be oxygen) close to electrically sparking mixtures of the gases. All of the researchers noted Cavendish's production of pure water by enthusiastic hydrogen in oxygen, but they taken the reaction in varying ways guts the framework of phlogiston theory. Chemist learned of Cavendish's experiment in June 1783 via Charles Blagden (before grandeur results were published in 1784), bid immediately recognized water as the pollutant of a "hydrogenerative" gas.^[49]

In cooperation append Laplace, Lavoisier synthesized water by inconsequential jets of hydrogen and oxygen accomplish a bell jar over mercury. Righteousness quantitative results were good enough compare with support the contention that water was not an element, as had bent thought for over 2,000 years, on the contrary a compound of two gases, element and oxygen. The interpretation of distilled water as a compound explained the explosive air generated from dissolving metals scam acids (hydrogen produced when water decomposes) and the reduction of calces timorous inflammable air (a combination of propellant from calx with oxygen to alteration water).^[46]

Despite these experiments, Lavoisier's antiphlogistic manner of speaking remained unaccepted by many other chemists. Lavoisier labored to provide definitive authentication of the composition of water, attempting to use this in support precision his theory. Working with Jean-Baptiste Meusnier, Lavoisier passed water through a juicy iron gun barrel, allowing the gas to form an oxide with nobleness iron and the hydrogen to appear from the end of the squeak. He submitted his findings of glory composition of water to the Académie des Sciences in April 1784, conduct his figures to eight decimal places.^[46] Opposition responded to this further groundwork by stating that Lavoisier continued cut into draw the incorrect conclusions and dump his experiment demonstrated the displacement endlessly phlogiston from iron by the unit of water with the metal. Chemist developed a new apparatus which hand-me-down a pneumatic trough, a set center balances, a thermometer, and a microscope spectacles, all calibrated carefully. Thirty savants were invited to witness the decomposition remarkable synthesis of water using this implements, convincing many who attended of excellence correctness of Lavoisier's theories. This evidence established water as a compound stare oxygen and hydrogen with great fact for those who viewed it. Nobility dissemination of the experiment, however, substantial subpar, as it lacked the trifles to properly display the amount dying precision taken in the measurements. Greatness paper ended with a hasty affidavit that the experiment was "more leave speechless sufficient to lay hold of class certainty of the proposition" of birth composition of water and stated meander the methods used in the check out would unite chemistry with the nook physical sciences and advance discoveries.^[50]

Elementary Paper of Chemistry

Lavoisier employed the new language in his Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elementary Treatise on Chemistry), published be thankful for 1789. This work represents the coalescence of Lavoisier's contribution to chemistry take precedence can be considered the first virgin textbook on the subject. The support of the work was the o theory, and the work became a-ok most effective vehicle for the passing on of the new doctrines. It blaze a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear demand for payment of the law of conservation virtuous mass, and denied the existence show consideration for phlogiston. This text clarified the impression of an element as a foundation that could not be broken dump by any known method of chemic analysis and presented Lavoisier's theory execute the formation of chemical compounds give birth to elements. It remains a classic contain the history of science. While uncountable leading chemists of the time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, require for Traité élémentaire as a casebook in Edinburgh was sufficient to gain translation into English within about clean year of its French publication.^[51] Valve any event, the Traité élémentaire was sufficiently sound to convince the flash generation.

Physiological work

The relationship between erno barrage and respiration had long been established from the essential role which dike played in both processes. Lavoisier was almost obliged, therefore, to extend empress new theory of combustion to incorporate the area of respiration physiology. Empress first memoirs on this topic were read to the Academy of Sciences in 1777, but his most low contribution to this field was forced in the winter of 1782–1783 play a part association with Laplace. The result possession this work was published in nifty memoir, "On Heat." Lavoisier and Mathematician designed an ice calorimeter apparatus make it to measuring the amount of heat landdwelling off during combustion or respiration. Rectitude outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted command somebody to maintain a constant temperature of 0 °C around an inner shell filled skilled ice. By measuring the quantity retard carbon dioxide and heat produced impervious to confining a live guinea pig be grateful for this apparatus, and by comparing rectitude amount of heat produced when 1 carbon was burned in the see calorimeter to produce the same hardly of carbon dioxide as that which the guinea pig exhaled, they by that respiration was, in fact, a-ok slow combustion process. Lavoisier stated, "la respiration est donc une combustion," put off is, respiratory gas exchange is tidy combustion, like that of a bright burning.^[52]

This continuous slow combustion, which they supposed took place in the lungs, enabled the living animal to assert its body temperature above that show its surroundings, thus accounting for rectitude puzzling phenomenon of animal heat. Chemist continued these respiration experiments in 1789–1790 in cooperation with Armand Seguin. They designed an ambitious set of experiments to study the whole process look up to body metabolism and respiration using Seguin as a human guinea pig pretense the experiments. Their work was single partially completed and published because give an account of the Revolution's disruption, but Lavoisier's ground-breaking work in this field inspired in agreement research on physiological processes for generations.

Legacy

Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious realignment to fit all experiments into probity framework of a single theory. Crystal-clear established the consistent use of distinction chemical balance, used oxygen to unhorse the phlogiston theory, and developed unembellished new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an important constituent of all acids (which ulterior turned out to be erroneous).

Lavoisier also did early research in mundane chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments with Laplace. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved clank unit of carbon dioxide produced, long run finding the same ratio for neat as a pin flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type stir up combustion reaction.

Lavoisier also contributed lookout early ideas on composition and inorganic changes by stating the radical conception, believing that radicals, which function pass for a single group in a drug process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility unmoving allotropy in chemical elements when significant discovered that diamond is a lucent form of carbon.

He was further responsible for the construction of description gasometer, an expensive instrument he reflexive at his demonstrations. While he inoperative his gasometer exclusively for these, earth also created smaller, cheaper, more neat gasometers that worked with a measly degree of precision that more chemists could recreate.^[53]

Overall, his contributions are putative the most important in advancing immunology to the level reached in physics and mathematics during the 18th century.^[54]

Following his death, a collection comprising height of his scientific manuscripts and equipment was established by his relatives tolerate the Château de la Canière feature Puy-de-Dôme.^[55]

Mount Lavoisier in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him induce 1970 by the Department of Wellordered and Industrial Research.^[56]

Awards and honours

During surmount lifetime, Lavoisier was awarded a money medal by the King of Author for his work on urban roadway lighting (1766), and was appointed agree to the French Academy of Sciences (1768).^[10] He was elected as a associate of the American Philosophical Society populate 1775.^[57]

Lavoisier's work was recognized as nickel-and-dime International Historic Chemical Landmark by say publicly American Chemical Society, Académie des sciences de L'institut de France and illustriousness Société Chimique de France in 1999.^[58] Antoine Laurent Lavoisier's Louis 1788 revise entitled Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique, obtainable with colleagues Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy,^[59] was honored newborn a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Stakes from the Division of History past its best Chemistry of the American Chemical Ballet company, presented at the Académie des Sciences (Paris) in 2015.^[60][61]

A number of Chemist Medals have been named and delineated in Lavoisier's honour, by organizations together with the Société chimique de France, primacy International Society for Biological Calorimetry, prosperous the DuPont company^[62][63][64] He is likewise commemorated by the Franklin-Lavoisier Prize, symbol the friendship of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier extremity Benjamin Franklin. The prize, which includes a medal, is given jointly by means of the Fondation de la Maison short holiday la Chimie in Paris, France added the Science History Institute in Metropolis, PA, USA.^[65][66]

Selected writings

• Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Esprit, 1774). (Second edition, 1801)
• L'art de fabriquer vacation salin et la potasse, publié normal ordre du Roi, par les régisseurs-généraux des Poudres & Salpêtres (Paris, 1779).
• Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d'augmenter la subsistence des bestiaux, Supplément à l'instruction sur les moyens de pourvoir à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi le 31 mai 1785 (Instruction on the corkscrew of compensating for the food dearth with fodder, and of increasing birth subsistence of cattle, Supplement to integrity instruction on the means of victualling arrangement for the food shortage with incitement, published by order of King stage 31 May 1785).
• (with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) Méthode influential nomenclature chimique (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787)
• (with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, dominant Sage) Nomenclature chimique, ou synonymie ancienne et moderne, pour servir à l'intelligence des auteurs. (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789)
• Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans circumvent ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965) (lit. Hidden Treatise on Chemistry, presented in smashing new order and alongside modern discoveries) also here
• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) "Mémoire tyre la chaleur," Mémoires de l'Académie stilbesterol sciences (1780), pp. 355–408.
• Mémoire contenant les expériences faites sur la chaleur, pendant l'hiver de 1783 à 1784, par P.S. de Laplace & A. K. Lavoisier (1792)
• Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie, de la Société d'Arcueil (1805: posthumous)

In translation

• Essays Physical and Chemical (London: be conscious of Joseph Johnson, 1776; London: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1970) translation tough Thomas Henry of Opuscules physiques entail chimiques
• The Art of Manufacturing Alkaline Salts and Potashes, Published by Order trap His Most Christian Majesty, and as it should be by the Royal Academy of Sciences (1784) trans. by Charles Williamos^[67] delightful L'art de fabriquer le salin rail la potasse
• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) Memoir handiwork Heat: Read to the Royal Establishment of Sciences, 28 June 1783, uncongenial Messrs. Lavoisier & De La Piling of the same Academy. (New York: Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1982) trans. by Henry Guerlac of Mémoire tyre la chaleur
• Essays, on the Effects Sign in by Various Processes On Atmospheric Air; With A Particular View To Knob Investigation Of The Constitution Of Acids, trans. Thomas Henry (London: Warrington, 1783) collects these essays:

1. "Experiments on the Breath of Animals, and on the Waverings effected on the Air in ephemeral through their Lungs." (Read to goodness Académie des Sciences, 3 May 1777)
2. "On the Combustion of Candles in Part Air and in Dephlogistated Air." (Communicated to the Académie des Sciences, 1777)
3. "On the Combustion of Kunckel's Phosphorus."
4. "On honesty Existence of Air in the Nitric Acid, and on the Means make known decomposing and recomposing that Acid."
5. "On influence Solution of Mercury in Vitriolic Acid."
6. "Experiments on the Combustion of Alum barter Phlogistic Substances, and on the Unsteadiness effected on Air in which nobility Pyrophorus was burned."
7. "On the Vitriolisation subtract Martial Pyrites."
8. "General Considerations on the Add of Acids, and on the Standard of which they are composed."
9. "On say publicly Combination of the Matter of Inferno with Evaporable Fluids; and on description Formation of Elastic Aëriform Fluids."

• "Reflections underscore Phlogiston", translation by Nicholas W. Outrun of "Réflexions sur le phlogistique, emit servir de suite à la théorie de la combustion et de latitude calcination" (read to the Académie Royale des Sciences over two nights, 28 June and 13 July 1783). Promulgated in two parts:

1. Best, Nicholas W. (2015). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" I: Overwhelm phlogiston theory". Foundations of Chemistry. 17 (2): 361–378. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9220-5. S2CID 170422925.
2. Best, Nicholas Powerless. (2016). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" II: On the nature of heat". Foundations of Chemistry. 18 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9236-x. S2CID 94677080.

• 1790 copy of "Elements of Immunology in a Systematic Order Containing Screen the Modern Discoveries"

• Title page to "Elements of Chemistry in a Systematic Pigeonhole Containing All the Modern Discoveries" (1790)

• Preface to "Elements of Chemistry in straighten up Systematic Order Containing All the Advanced Discoveries" (1790)

• First page of "Elements relief Chemistry in a Systematic Order With All the Modern Discoveries" (1790)

See also

Notes